A&I Resource Center
Browse the A&I Resource Center for resources on using A&I Online and for analytical reports, studies, and other materials on truck and bus safety. You can also search by keyword or topic below.
Filter by Topics
Topics
Filter by Resource Type
Materials
Crash Stats Dashboard Training Video
Updated Date: 5/8/2024
Updated Date: 5/8/2024
VIEW eLEARNING
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Analysis Series: Methodology of the Large Truck Crash Causation Study
This report provides the background and methodology of the LTCCS, including a discussion about crash causation, critical events, and associated factors. It also describes the collaborative effort by FMCSA and NHTSA resulting in a nationally representative sample of 1,000 large truck fatal and serious injury crashes over a three-year period.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Analysis Series: Using LTCCS Data for Statistical Analyses of Crash Risk
This document discusses how statistical analyses of the LTCCS database can be used to investigate crash causes and contributing factors. It defines 10 critical issues for large truck safety, outlines the information needed to address each, assesses how well the LTCCS database fills those needs, and discusses other data that could be used for questions where LTCCS data are not adequate.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Frequently Asked Questions
Addresses the most frequently asked questions about the LTCCS.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Report to Congress on the Large Truck Crash Causation Study
The Motor Carrier Safety Improvement Act of 1999 (MCSIA), P.L. 106-159, mandated the LTCCS to determine the causes of, and contributing factors to, crashes involving commercial motor vehicles. In March 2006, FMCSA submitted a report to Congress detailing the study's principle findings.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Analytical User’s Manual
The LTCCS Analytical User's Manual provides guidance on the variable definitions and codes for all the data sets included in the study.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Overview Presentation
This 2006 presentation provides an overview of the LTCCS. It includes how the study defines causation; study data collection; key variables coded for the study; coding example for a crash; critical events, critical reason, and associated factors for the crashes; and an example of how the data can be analyzed. Speaker notes are included.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
VIEW POWERPOINT
Three Stories from the LTCCS: Using the LTCCS for Safety Research
This presentation illustrates the strengths and limitations of the LTCCS data using experience from three research projects.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
VIEW POWERPOINT
Why Trucks and Cars Collide
This presentation examines the LTCCS crashes between a single large truck and a single passenger vehicle (cars, pickup trucks, vans, SUVs). It presents critical reasons and associated crash factors for both classes of vehicles, and reports those factors that increase the risk of truck-car crashes. Speaker notes are included.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
VIEW POWERPOINT
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Case Viewer
The LTCCS dataset consists of aggregate data tables. FMCSA has collaborated with the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration to develop a web-based case viewer. The viewer will allow users to filter the study dataset for specific crash types or factors and review the resulting case information. The information available for each case includes a crash summary, photographs, crash scene diagrams, vehicle and driver inspections, and other information for each involved vehicle.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
VIEW LINK
Large Truck Crash Causation Study Codebook
The LTCCS Codebook provides a listing of every variable and code level in each data file, including the distribution of records, code values in the file, labels associated with each code value, data storage type, variable storage length, and format entry, if any. The Codebook also includes an appendix with tables that can be used to estimate standard errors and confidence intervals for estimated totals of variables contained in the data sets.
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
Updated Date: 8/30/2018
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: TXT Data File (1/2)
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: SAS Data File (1/2)
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: SAS Data File (2/2)
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: TXT Data File (2/2)
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: ReadMe Data File
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD EXCEL FILE
Large Truck Crash Causation Study: XLS Data File
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
Updated Date: 7/3/2018
DOWNLOAD EXCEL FILE
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2014
This annual edition of Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts contains descriptive statistics about fatal, injury, and property damage only crashes involving large trucks and buses in 2014. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 5/31/2016
Updated Date: 5/31/2016
VIEW LINK
FMCSA Pocket Guide to Large Truck and Bus Statistics
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration’s (FMCSA) 2015 Pocket Guide to Large Truck and Bus Statistics highlights the Agency’s role in enforcement and in collecting and analyzing crash data and statistics to support its mission to prevent commercial motor vehicle-related fatalities and injuries. It can serve as a valuable, compact resource for industry representatives, Federal agencies, and other individuals interested in motor carrier safety regulations and performance data.
Updated Date: 5/18/2015
Updated Date: 5/18/2015
VIEW LINK
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2013
This annual edition of Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts contains descriptive statistics about fatal, injury, and
property damage only crashes involving large trucks and buses in 2013. Selected crash statistics on passenger
vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 5/18/2015
Updated Date: 5/18/2015
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2012
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 6/1/2014
Updated Date: 6/1/2014
DOWNLOAD PDF
2011 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 10/1/2013
Updated Date: 10/1/2013
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2011
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 10/1/2013
Updated Date: 10/1/2013
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trucks Involved in Fatal Accidents (TIFA) & Buses Involved in Fatal Accidents (BIFA) reports
A web link to the University of Michigan’s Transportation Research Institute’s (UMTRI) Center for National Truck and Bus Statistics truck and bus fatal accident reports. UMTRI has conducted an annual national survey on fatal accidents involving medium and heavy trucks since 1980 and on buses since 1999. The resulting data files are called Trucks Involved in Fatal Accidents (TIFA) and Buses Involved in Fatal Accidents (BIFA).
Updated Date: 1/1/2013
Updated Date: 1/1/2013
VIEW LINK
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2010
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 8/1/2012
Updated Date: 8/1/2012
DOWNLOAD PDF
2010 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 6/1/2012
Updated Date: 6/1/2012
DOWNLOAD PDF
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2009
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 10/1/2011
Updated Date: 10/1/2011
DOWNLOAD PDF
2009 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 10/1/2011
Updated Date: 10/1/2011
DOWNLOAD PDF
State Level Commercial Motor Vehicle (CMV) Fatality Rate per 100 Million Truck and Bus Vehicle Miles Traveled, 2002-2007
This report provides a commercial motor vehicle fatality rate for each State over a period of several years (fatality rate figures represent commercial motor vehicle fatalities per 100 million commercial motor vehicle miles traveled).
Updated Date: 9/1/2010
Updated Date: 9/1/2010
VIEW LINK
Large Truck and Bus Crash Facts 2008
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 3/1/2010
Updated Date: 3/1/2010
DOWNLOAD PDF
2008 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 2/1/2010
Updated Date: 2/1/2010
VIEW LINK
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State 1996-2008 complete report
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 1/4/2010
Updated Date: 1/4/2010
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 17: All Motor Vehicles Involved in Fatal Crashes by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of motor vehicles that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 18: Fatalities in All Motor Vehicle Crashes by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of fatalities in crashes that involved motor vehicles. Data are presented by State for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 16: Fatal Crashes Involving All Motor Vehicles by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved motor vehicles. Data are presented by State for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 15: Fatalities in Crashes Involving Large Trucks by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of fatalities in crashes that involved large trucks. Data are presented by State for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 14: Large Trucks Involved in Fatal Crashes by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of large trucks that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 13: Fatal Crashes Involving Large Trucks by State: Percent Change
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved large trucks. Data are presented by state for several years. The percent difference in the number of fatalities reported also is calculated.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 12: Fatalities in All Motor Vehicle Crashes by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatalities in crashes that involved all motor vehicles. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 11: All Motor Vehicles Involved in Fatal Crashes by State
This table summarizes the total number of motor vehicles in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 10: Fatal Crashes Involving Motor Vehicles by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved all motor vehicles. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 9: Fatalities in Crashes Involving All Buses by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatalities in crashes that involved all buses. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 8: All Buses Involved in Fatal Crashes by State
This table summarizes the total number of buses that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 7: Fatal Crashes Involving All Buses by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved all buses. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 6: Fatalities in Crashes Involving Motorcoaches by State
This table summarizes the total number of motorcoaches that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 5: Motorcoaches Involved in Fatal Crashes by State
This table summarizes the total number of motorcoaches that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 4: Fatal Crashes Involving Motorcoaches by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved motorcoaches. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 3: Fatalities in Crashes Involving Large Trucks by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatalities in crashes that involved large trucks. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 1: Fatal Crashes Involving Large Trucks by State
This table summarizes the total number of fatal crashes that involved large trucks. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data - Table 2: Large Trucks Involved in Fatal Crashes by State
This table summarizes the total number of large trucks that were involved in fatal crashes. Data are presented by State.
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
Updated Date: 12/23/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
2007 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal, injury, and property damage only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 1/1/2009
Updated Date: 1/1/2009
DOWNLOAD PDF
2007 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 12/1/2008
Updated Date: 12/1/2008
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1994-2007 (complete report)
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 9/25/2008
Updated Date: 9/25/2008
DOWNLOAD PDF
2006 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal, injury, and property damage only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 1/1/2008
Updated Date: 1/1/2008
DOWNLOAD PDF
2006 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 12/1/2007
Updated Date: 12/1/2007
DOWNLOAD PDF
Environmental Costs of Commercial Motor Vehicle (CMV) Crashes Phase || - Part 2: Estimation Report
The purpose of this report is to provide FMCSA with estimates for its environmental analyses comparable to those currently being used by the agency for its economic analyses. These environmental estimates, along with the included descriptions of the methodologies upon which they are based, will enable FMCSA to describe the inherent links between CMV safety and environmental protection.
Updated Date: 3/1/2007
Updated Date: 3/1/2007
DOWNLOAD PDF
2005 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 2/1/2007
Updated Date: 2/1/2007
DOWNLOAD PDF
2005 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 1/1/2007
Updated Date: 1/1/2007
DOWNLOAD PDF
Costs of Large Truck and Bus-Involved Crashes
This study provides comprehensive, economically sophisticated estimates of the costs of highway crashes involving large trucks and buses by severity.
Updated Date: 12/1/2006
Updated Date: 12/1/2006
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1994-2005 (complete report)
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 9/7/2006
Updated Date: 9/7/2006
DOWNLOAD PDF
2004 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 3/1/2006
Updated Date: 3/1/2006
DOWNLOAD PDF
2004 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 3/1/2006
Updated Date: 3/1/2006
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1993-2004 (complete report)
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 10/5/2005
Updated Date: 10/5/2005
DOWNLOAD PDF
2003 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 2/1/2005
Updated Date: 2/1/2005
DOWNLOAD PDF
2003 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 2/1/2005
Updated Date: 2/1/2005
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1993-2003 (complete report)
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 8/17/2004
Updated Date: 8/17/2004
DOWNLOAD PDF
2002 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 4/1/2004
Updated Date: 4/1/2004
DOWNLOAD PDF
2002 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 4/1/2004
Updated Date: 4/1/2004
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Motor Vehicle Crashes (1975 - 2002)
This report presents descriptive statistics for fatal injury and propery-damage-only motor vehicle crashes. The vehicle types described in this report include light, medium, large, heavy, and combination trucks, buses, and passenger cars.
Updated Date: 12/11/2003
Updated Date: 12/11/2003
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1990-2002 (complete report)
This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 7/21/2003
Updated Date: 7/21/2003
DOWNLOAD PDF
2001 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 1/1/2003
Updated Date: 1/1/2003
DOWNLOAD PDF
2001 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 1/1/2003
Updated Date: 1/1/2003
DOWNLOAD PDF
December 2002 Costs of Large Truck and Bus-Involved Crashes
This study provides comprehensive, economically sophisticated estimates of the costs of highway crashes involving large trucks and buses by severity.
Updated Date: 11/18/2002
Updated Date: 11/18/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
2001 Large Truck Crash Stats at-a-Glance
This publication summarizes large truck descriptive statistics for fatal and injury crashes that occurred in 2001.
Updated Date: 10/16/2002
Updated Date: 10/16/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Fatal Crash Data by State, 1990-2001 (complete report)
'This report contains descriptive statistics about fatal crashes that involved large trucks, motorcoaches, and buses by State.
Updated Date: 10/8/2002
Updated Date: 10/8/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
2000 Work Zone Traffic Crash Facts
This report presents descriptive statistics for both work zone-related motor vehicle crashes in general as well as work zone-related large truck crashes.
Updated Date: 3/29/2002
Updated Date: 3/29/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
2000 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 3/1/2002
Updated Date: 3/1/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
2000 Large Truck Crash Overview
This publication provides an overview of large truck crash data by trends, vehicles, drivers, and crash environment.
Updated Date: 1/1/2002
Updated Date: 1/1/2002
DOWNLOAD PDF
Trends in Motor Vehicle Crashes (1975 - 2000)
This report presents descriptive statistics for fatal injury and propery-damage-only motor vehicle crashes. The vehicle types described in this report include light, medium, large, heavy, and combination trucks, buses, and passenger cars.
Updated Date: 12/6/2001
Updated Date: 12/6/2001
DOWNLOAD PDF
1999 Work-Zone Traffic Crash Facts
This report presents descriptive statistics for both work-zone-related motor vehicle crashes in general as well as work-zone-related large truck crashes in 1999.
Updated Date: 4/1/2001
Updated Date: 4/1/2001
DOWNLOAD PDF
1999 Large Truck Crash Facts
This publication contains descriptive statistics about fatal injury and property-damage-only crashes involving large trucks. Selected crash statistics on passenger vehicles are also presented for comparison purposes.
Updated Date: 4/1/2001
Updated Date: 4/1/2001
DOWNLOAD PDF
December 2000 Costs of Large Truck and Bus-Involved Crashes
This study provides comprehensive, economically sophisticated estimates of the costs of highway crashes involving large trucks and buses by severity.
Updated Date: 12/14/2000
Updated Date: 12/14/2000
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile, 1998
Updated Date: 1/1/2000
Updated Date: 1/1/2000
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile Executive Summary, 1998
Updated Date: 1/1/2000
Updated Date: 1/1/2000
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile, 1997
Updated Date: 9/1/1998
Updated Date: 9/1/1998
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile Executive Summary, 1997
Updated Date: 9/1/1998
Updated Date: 9/1/1998
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile, 1996
Updated Date: 9/1/1997
Updated Date: 9/1/1997
DOWNLOAD PDF
National Truck Crash Profile Executive Summary, 1996
Updated Date: 9/1/1997
Updated Date: 9/1/1997
DOWNLOAD PDF